Differences and Complexity of Human Interactions with Baird’s Tapir and Pineapple in Costa Rica
Today, I would like to share this paper I am proud of that I wrote for my environmental physiology class. We're traveling very far from the Midwest today and exploring Costa Rica. I hope you enjoy this change of pace.
Differences and Complexity of Human Interactions with Baird’s Tapir (Tapirus bairdii) and Pineapple (Ananas comosus) in Costa Rica
By Eli Mirek
Costa Rica is one of the most biologically diverse countries in the world. Home to thousands of species, 27% of land in Costa Rica is protected and many environmental laws have been passed for the safety and success of native species (Richardson et. al., 2013). Additionally, Costa Rica is a pioneer in the practice of ecological corridors, which allow for free movement of species between protected areas (Beita et. al., 2021). This is especially important for gene flow, energy movement, nutrient cycling, and other abiotic and biotic processes (Beita et. al., 2021). Ecological corridors cover 38% of land in Costa Rica, outlining the importance of land use for biodiversity in Costa Rica (Beita et. al., 2021). Although Costa Rica takes conservation of native species and ecosystems seriously, over 70% of primary forest has been cut down due to human population growth, agriculture, and construction (Runnebaum et. al., 2025). These varying statistics bring about the question of how anthropogenic factors are directly affecting species. This can be visualized through pineapple (Ananas comosus) and Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii), two species Costa Rica is known for.
Although pineapple is not native to Costa Rica, Costa Rica’s economy depends greatly on its production of pineapple and international pineapple exports (Ayra & Montoya, 2025; Aza-Mengoa et. al., 2025; Richardson et. al., 2013). Therefore, it is an important agricultural species in Costa Rica, with agricultural practices ensuring successful crops, cheap agricultural labor being brought in from Nicaragua, and land being developed into large plantations (Araya & Montoya, 2025; Echavarría & Prunier, 2020). Pineapple is a clear example of how human intervention can benefit a species’ population density, improve ability to fight off disease, and improve reproduction success. On the other hand, Baird’s tapir, native to Costa Rica, is on the IUCN Red List as an endangered species, with an expected population decline of over 50% in the next two decades (González-Maya et. al., 2012). Human-related factors like hunting and habitat loss due to land use changes and climate change have led to tapir endangerment and decline (Cove et. al., 2013). Baird’s tapir is now a protected species in Costa Rica, but, historically, tapirs are an example of how a species’s habitat can be destroyed by humans, causing huge population losses. These two species, despite being from different domains, visualize how drastically human-related factors can impact the productivity and success of a species.
Aside from the fact that Costa Rica is the largest producer of pineapple in the world (56% of the global market), 27% of their agricultural land is used for pineapple production (Ayra & Montoya, 2025). Considering this, pineapple exports make up a large percentage of Costa Rica’s annual economy. In the past, 50% of pineapple production was carried out by independent farmers, but, now, 90% of production and exportation is overseen by large multinational companies such as Del Monte and Dole (Aza-Mengoa et. al., 2025; Richardson et. al., 2013). Because large companies with minimal to no sustainability goals are in charge of the majority of pineapple production, these companies are accelerating production with a variety of methods.
These methods include extensive use of pesticides, micropropagation, and plant growth regulators (Chaupoo et. al., 2024). For example, cultural practices that have been used for years to encourage regular flowering are now being replaced by spraying plant growth regulators and then forced flowering by ethylene or ethephon (Chaupoo et. al., 2024). Additionally, the use of liquid fertilizer, called foliar fertilizer, is becoming more popular for large corporations (Chaupoo et. al., 2024). Micropropagation is also becoming a popular method which involves “rapid propagation through a split crown technique” (Chaupoo et. al., 2024). These methods are allowing for quick reproduction, less disease, and a more consistent crop. This, in turn, benefits the species through direct human intervention.
However, pineapple production is not simple in the eyes of politics and environmentalism. The use of pesticides has proven to be problematic. They have caused water pollution of local water sources near large plantations, causing concerns within local communities (Aza-Mengoa et. al., 2025; Richardson et. al. 2013). Additionally, improper soil conservation techniques have been causing erosion problems, which can impact future pineapple production (Aza-Mengoa et. al., 2025; Richardson et. al. 2013). Pineapple production is also a large producer of waste due to open burning of pineapple residues, causing 81,211 metric tons of greenhouse gas emissions and 14,927 metric tons of particulate matter waste (Liao et. al., 2026). Politically, there have been many issues between local Costa Rican residents and Nicaraguan migrant workers, not to mention the unfair wages, terrible working conditions, and treatments of both Costa Rican and Nicaraguan workers by large production companies (Ayra & Montoya, 2025; Aza-Mengoa et. al., 2025; Echavarría & Prunier, 2020; Richardson et. al. 2013). These facts, especially the emissions of GHGs, accelerate climate change, deforestation, and pollution in Costa Rica, which have negatively impacted many native organisms, including Baird’s tapir.
Baird’s tapir is the largest terrestrial mammal in the neotropics and is important for the healthy function of ecosystems within its habitat range (Foerster & Vaughan, 2002). They are important seed dispersers and contribute to reforestation in vulnerable areas as well as encouraging gene flow between plants (Foerster & Vaughan, 2002; Pastor-Parajeles, 2025). They are generalist herbivores, eating over 98 species of plants including bark, fruit, vines, and various other plant components (Cove et. al., 2013; Pastor-Parajeles, 2025). While these are important creatures for the health and function of ecosystems in Costa Rica and other Central American countries, human-related factors have caused tapir populations to decline dramatically and even go extinct in their native habitats (Cove et. al., 2013; Foerster & Vaughan, 2002; González-Maya et. al., 2012; Pastor-Parajeles, 2025).
The result of human impacts due to pineapple production is not the only factor that has a negative impact on Baird’s tapir. Cattle farming, palm oil production, hunting, and climate change are some other factors that have huge impacts on tapir populations (Cove et. al., 2013; Runnebaum et. al, 2025). Majority of these factors contribute to habitat destruction for tapirs, which is the main issue that they are facing (Garcìa et. al., 2016). Habitat loss causes habitat fragmentation, which reduces the ability of tapirs to migrate, gather resources, randomly mate, and have proper gene flow, all of which can be detrimental to population growth and health (Cove et. al., 2013; Garcìa et. al., 2016; Runnebaum et. al, 2025). Additionally, hunting used to be a large problem for tapir populations. To adapt to habitat loss and urbanization, tapirs often raid local farms and gardens, which sometimes lead to farmers retaliating by killing them (Cove et. al., 2013). In Costa Rica, hunting of tapirs is now illegal due to the endangered status of tapirs; however, there are still tensions towards tapirs because they can cause a lot of damage to local crops (Cove et. al., 2013; Pastor-Parajeles, 2025).
Because of habitat loss, hunting, climate change, and other anthropogenic factors, tapirs have adapted in a variety of ways. As mentioned before, they raid local crops when migrating through urban and rural areas, but they also have become increasingly nocturnal to avoid human interactions and the possibility of being hunted (Foerster & Vaughan, 2002). They also have been forced to migrate upwards in altitude to the highlands of mountains in Costa Rica, where the highest tapir density is 2.93 individuals/km2 (González-Maya et. al., 2012). This range shift is because of high habitat fragmentation due to large agricultural plantations being built in the lowlands (González-Maya et. al., 2012). As the abundance of plantations and warm temperatures increase, tapirs can only move up so far, forcing them to either adapt to new diets, adapt to warmer temperatures, or, in the worst case, die. Additionally, hot temperatures and habitat fragmentation reduce species productivity, meaning tapirs’ already low reproductive rate will decrease further (Garcìa et. al., 2016).
Although these factors have harmed tapirs, Costa Rican biologists and ecologists are currently working towards repairing human-tapir relationships in ecological corridors, where it is likely that tapirs and humans will interact (Cove et. al., 2013; Pastor-Parajeles, 2025). Specifically, they have examined these interactions in the San Juan-La Selva Biological Corridor and the Tenorio-Miravalles Biological Corridor (Cove et. al., 2013; Pastor-Parajeles, 2025). They found that these corridors are very important for habitat connectivity and for resources (Cove et. al., 2013; Pastor-Parajeles, 2025). Therefore, there is more effort by conservationists and policy makers to maintain these ecological corridors in an attempt to conserve tapir populations. Additionally, biologists are facilitating conversations with locals to repair possible tensions they have towards tapirs to reduce poaching and retaliation killing (Pastor-Parajeles, 2025).
It is interesting to see how complex the relationships are between these two species, pineapple and Baird’s tapir, and humans. Human impacts improve pineapple reproduction and reduce disease, however, improper agricultural practices, specifically with soil and water, can reduce future pineapple crop health. Additionally, human-related factors that are good for pineapple, like plowing land for pineapple plantations and using pesticides, have a direct negative effect on tapir health and abundance. Habitat loss is the biggest threat to tapirs and has decreased their abundance and caused their extinction in some countries. However, current movements have also had positive effects on tapirs, like maintaining ecological corridors to mitigate habitat fragmentation. These relationships are very complex and are not only ecological issues but political and economic issues as well. These differences and complexities visualize how anthropogenic factors may help some species but hurt others. Additionally, it illustrates the importance of conversations between local communities, policy makers, scientists, and companies to find ways to reach middle grounds.
References
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